The 2007 WFA-USA Award Winning High School Essay

The Great War was the war in which the air as an element for combat had its dawn. During the war developments in technology and in technique were made at a rapid pace. These developments were still not all that was required for the airplane to be recognized as the useful tool that it is, however, they sent it well on its way.

Types of Air Power

The value of the airplane as a reconnaissance machine was first seen when the war bogged down and trench fighting began. Due to the impossibility of cavalry to ride ahead or around the enemy lines to scout, aircraft were used. When cameras were fastened to the sides of aircraft extremely clear aerial photographs were made available and the cavalryman as a scout became virtually obsolete on the battlefield. When telegraph transmitters were installed on the aircraft and the "clock system" [i] was developed, aircraft became useful as artillery spotters also. These aircraft were collectively known as "scouts."

The first air combat was with pistols, shotguns, or rifles fired from the cockpit or strapped to the sides of the airplane. This was a very ineffective way of aerial fighting because to bring an aircraft down in the short time that was available to shoot in, they had to kill the pilot or hit a vital part of the engine. Fatally wounding the pilot was also nearly impossible without some type of automatic rifle or machine-gun that could fire more than one bullet within the space of a few seconds, and hitting an engine's vitals was even harder. This gave birth to fitting machine-guns onto aircraft.

The first recorded air-to-air kill was made on October 5, 1914, when a French Voison 3 [ii] shot down a German Aviatik B.1 [iii] with a Hotchkiss machine-gun. [iv] Neither aircraft was built to be in combat. The Aviatik was on a reconnaissance mission, and the observer in the Voison seemed to have been experimenting with putting a machine-gun on the aircraft. As more and more reconnaissance aircraft were fitted with machine-guns, people began to call them "armed scouts".

It was soon recognized that the reconnaissance aircraft needed protection from these armed scouts, or else they would be shot down, and the photos of the enemy lines would be lost. Aircraft companies began developing stronger and more powerful aircraft designed for speed and maneuverability. In the aircraft that were available in the beginning of the war the use of a machine-gun slowed the aircraft to the point where it was nearly impossible to keep up enough speed to fly with the factors of weight and gun recoil affecting it. More powerful engines and strengthened overall structure became increasingly important. These armed scouts would represent a turning point in the war in the air and eventually would come to be known as "fighters."

The first of the new fighter style aircraft to roll off of the production lines were pusher [v] configuration aircraft. The reason for this was that the way to fire through the propeller without shooting it off had not been developed. One of the best aircraft of this class was the de Havilland/Airco DH.2. A development of the earlier DH.1 biplace [vi] , it had a Lewis Aerial Gun [vii] that could be moved into several different firing positions. The disadvantage to this was that the pilot had to move the gun and fly the aircraft at the same time. Eventually, the gun was fixed in the forward position and it was aimed by pointing the aircraft at the target.

A development that allowed a more agile tractor [viii] aircraft to use a forward firing machine-gun was pioneered in the Morane-Saulnier Type L "Parasol." This aircraft was fitted with metal bullet deflectors on the propellers where it would cross in front of the machine-gun. This modification wasn't the best way of getting over the problem since the propeller could still be shot off and the bullets could ricochet back and injure the pilot. In spite of these design issues, French Pilot Roland Garros was able to shoot down 3 planes between the 1st and 19th of April 1915, quite a feat considering the times. At the end of that period, however, he was shot down and captured before he could burn the plane; it was subsequently taken to Germany and copied. Burning a plane that you were going to abandon in enemy lines was a common practice for both sides. It ensured that any technology that was unknown to the enemy would remain unknown.

Artist's Depiction of Early-War Air Combat
A German Monoplane of the Tractor Type on the Left Engages a Biplane Pusher

Anthony Fokker, a young Dutch manufacturer, developed the interrupter gear for aircraft machine-guns. This invention allowed a machine-gun to be fired straight through the propeller's arc without hitting the blades. This mechanism was fitted to the twin LMG 08/15 Spandau [ix] machine-guns of the Fokker E.I "Eindecker"[x]. With it, men like Max Immelman and Oswald Boelke were able to destroy Allied planes nearly unopposed from August 1st 1915 to April 8th 1916, when a novice German pilot accidentally landed his E.III [[xi] at a British aerodrome. The Allies soon had their own version of the gear and the tide of the air war turned again as the British introduced the Sopwith Strutter[xii] and the French introduced the Nieuport 17[[xiii]. Because of these planes, the Allies enjoyed the advantage of total air superiority during the Battle of the Somme while the Central Powers were developing the stellar Albatross D Series.

Strategic bombing also came into play during WWI. The Central Powers used Zeppelin airships [xiv] during the war to bomb London and other British cities. Up until this period in history the women and children at home during a war weren't really affected unless the combating armies were on their land. Now, anyone within reach of the long ranges of the Zeppelins could be affected by the war. The lighter-than-air craft would almost silently soar over England and wreak their terrible destruction on unsuspecting civilians. This caused a state of panic in the British government.

Consequently, aircraft were ordered from the front lines to defend a new front, the home front. Unfortunately, the fighter aircraft that were in use at that time weren't able to climb high enough to reach the Zeppelins. Even if they could, their rate of climb was very poor. It could take up to half an hour to climb to 10,000 ft. Attaining a high altitude was also essential for air-to-air combat therefore companies began developing planes that were able to climb higher, faster. They were coming off of production lines and right onto the front lines. When these were outdated at the war front, they were sent to defend the home front, and before long, the allies had heavier-than-air craft that could soar to the same heights that Zeppelins could. The first Zeppelin kill occurred on June 17, 1915 when Lt. R.A.J. Warneford of the RNAF [xv] shot down Zeppelin LZ 37 in the air near Ostend in his Morane-Saulnier Parasol. It wasn't until September of 1916, though, that Zeppelins began to be shot down regularly. The Germans kept up the Zeppelin raids until August 5, 1918 when the Zeppelins that were on the mission suffered extreme casualties at the hands of Allied fighters.

One of the earliest heavier-than-air bombers was the Maurice-Farman S.11 "Shorthorn." [xvi] Developed from the M.F.7 "Longhorn" [xvii] it went into service in 1914. After it was taken out of service was used as a trainer until the end of the war. Heavier-than-air bombers came into popularity, especially with the Central Powers, with the death of the myth of Zeppelin's invincibility. The most famous of the WWI bombers were the German Gothas [xviii] . Fairly large for their time, the Gothas were able to bomb London and other British cities almost as easily as the Zeppelins and were more durable because they weren't filled with flammable hydrogen gas. Their attacks caused quite a bit of damage to British morale. They proved the effectiveness of long-range strategic bombing to the world.

Development of Technology

Graf von Zeppelin Receiving an Award in 1915; Above, One of His Airships in Flight

When the war broke out aircraft hadn't developed much beyond the Wrights' original 1903 Flyer. Difficult to fly contraptions of wood, flammable cloth, and piano wire with unreliable engines in almost every position imaginable were flown precariously by daredevils who were willing to risk life and limb for a thrill. These extremely slow aircraft were perfect for taking reconnaissance photographs of the enemy's side of the lines.

For the most part, aircraft still were set up in the pusher configuration like the Wrights' original aircraft. This afforded an excellent view, but could be deadly in a nose first crash because a falling engine could crush anyone in the cockpit. Also, anything that flew out of the cockpit would be blown through the arc of the propeller, causing another potentially dangerous situation. When fighter aircraft began to be developed pusher aircraft were the only planes that could have forward firing machine-guns until the interrupter gear was perfected. Air combat presented another disadvantage to pushers in the form of bullets getting into the undefended engine, easily bringing them down from behind. These failings were overlooked because the advantages of pusher aircraft surpassed their disadvantages. But with the advent of the interrupter gear, tractor configuration aircraft were brought to the forefront of fighter design.

Tractor aircraft were more maneuverable than pushers and they were safer too. As tractors came into popularity aircraft design became cleaner, without as many wires strung all over the plane. Design advanced fairly steadily over the course of the war for both sides. This occurred because they were, unintentionally, sharing information. When an aircraft from one side was shot down over enemy lines in good condition it was taken and examined for any new ideas. These ideas were either copied or improved upon (i.e. the interrupter gear). The British were the last ones to hold onto developing new pusher aircraft for the front lines, but by 1917, they had been completely discarded by all of the warring nations.

The types of aero engines used at the opening of the Great War were the same as those used by most automobiles. These water-cooled monstrosities were extremely heavy and impeded the performance of the aircraft. They soon gave way to lighter and easier to maintain air-cooled engines.

The first major type of air-cooled engine was the rotary engine. In the rotary design the propeller was attached to the engine, not the crankshaft. The air from the spinning engine allowed the engine to have a cooling system without having to carry a complicated system of pipes and a coolant tank. These engines threw off a lot of oil during flight and the only way to effectively stop this was to cover the engine with a cowling. This defeated the purpose of having an air-cooled engine. The pilots either learned to deal with spraying oil (Often by wearing silk scarves to wipe the oil from their face and goggles), or they found ways around it. Some mechanics cut holes in the underside of the cowling for the oil to escape and the air to be let in. The next type of engine to come on the scene was the inline engine. Pioneered by the American Liberty engine, these engines returned to the water-cooling system, were more powerful than their air-cooled cousins, and were more aerodynamic because they could be covered with a cowling without hurting the engine's performance. They also had been developed to the point where there was little weight difference between air-cooled and water-cooled engines. These last few features were to greatly aid in the performance of the fighters that used them. The downside was if an enemy's bullets punctured the cooling system's plumbing lines, the engine would overheat.

Aero engines returned to the air-cooling system with the radial engine. This engine operated in the normal manner, with the pistons turning the crankshaft that in turn spun the propeller. What characterized this engine was the fact that the cylinders "radiated" out from the center of the engine. For years after the war many companies used this genre of engine in their aircraft, including in Ryan Aviation Corp.'s famous "Spirit of Saint Louis" that Charles Lindbergh flew over the Atlantic.

Aerial Bombing In Its Infancy

The first weapons used in aerial combat were ineffective, hand-held pistol, rifles, or carbines. It wasn't until machine-guns were fastened onto aircraft that air fighting became reasonable. The first machine-guns fitted to aircraft were often in the observer's position in biplace aircraft. These guns were fitted to rings that were attached to the observer's seat. From here the observer could manually place the gun into the position that he wanted it in. The early machine-guns used in combat were heavy pieces of equipment that were prone to jamming, leaving airmen defenseless with nearly full drums of ammunition left. Before the interrupter gear, pilots could use a machine-gun in tractor aircraft but they had to maneuver the gun from one side of the propeller to the other while flying the plane. This was often more trouble than it was worth and resulted in tractor style fighter aircraft being rare until the interrupter gear came along. Aircraft were then fitted with machine-guns that were aligned along the flight path of the plane and air combat became much easier, and deadlier.

The events in the skies of Europe during the First World War opened the eyes of some in the militaries of the world to the amazing advantages of having an air force. Over the next twenty-one years these men were to hazardously attempt to convince their countries to develop a standing air force. Some would succeed, while others would, unfortunately, fail disastrously and be stripped of their rank. Whatever happened though air power had gained a foothold in the world's armed forces, and it was just a matter of time before it matured.

End Notes

i     The clock system consisted of a chart carried by both the airman (men) in the plane and the artillerymen on the ground. These charts had grids arranged so that their lines coincided with the numbers on the face of a clock.
ii    Biplace, multi-purpose, “pusher” biplane
iii   Biplace, tractor biplane, used for reconnaissance
iv    7.7mm, 550rpm, 11.8kg.
v     Pusher- designation for an aircraft whose engine is behind the cockpit
vi    Biplace- any two seat aircraft
vii   7.67mm, 600 rpm, 7.7kg.
viii  Tractor- Designation for an aircraft whose engine is in front of the cockpit
ix    7.92 mm, 500rpm, 12kg.
x     1-seat, tractor monoplane, fighter.
xi    A development of the E.I
xii   1-seat, tractor biplane, all purpose aircraft.
xiii  1-seat, tractor monoplane, fighter.
xiv   Zeppelins were rigid, hydrogen filled, lighter-than-air ships that were operated by the Central Powers.
xv    Royal Naval Air Force
xvi   2-seat, “pusher” biplane, used for bombing or reconnaissance.
xvii  2-seat, “pusher biplane, used mainly for training except early in the war.
xviii 3-seat, 2-engine, “tractor” biplane, early long-range bomber.

Bibliography

The World War One Source Book
By: Philip J. Haythornthwaite

The Complete Guide to Fighters and Bombers of the World
By: Francis Crosby

http://www.century-of-flight.net

Wikipedia